☎ Customer Service: 1.888.222.6056 | Support | About Us

Copy and share this page with your rewards code attached, and earn $10 plus save others money. More Information

✈FREE SHIPPING on US Orders Over $49

My Account

Shopping Cart

Items in your shopping cart

Quantity

Price

Subtotal: $ 0.00

Categories >

Supplements > Vitamins > Vitamin B > Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 Reviews
Vitamin B12 Benefits, Dosage and Safety

Other popular items

Learn all about Vitamin B12

What is Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin needed for normal nerve cell activity, DNA replication, and production of the mood-affecting substance SAMe (S-adenosyl-L-methionine). Vitamin B12 acts with folic acid and vitamin B6 to control homocysteine levels. An excess of homocysteine is associated with an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and potentially other diseases such as osteoporosis and Alzheimer’s disease.

How to Use It

Most people do not require vitamin B12 supplements. However, vegans should supplement with at least 2 to 3 mcg per day.

People with pernicious anemia are often treated with injections of vitamin B12. However, oral administration of 1,000 mcg per day can be used reliably as an alternative to vitamin B12 injections.

Absorption of vitamin B12 is reduced with increasing age. Some research suggests that elderly people may benefit from 10 to 25 mcg per day of vitamin B12. One study of elderly people with vitamin B12 deficiency suggested that as much as 500 to 1,000 mcg of vitamin B12 per day might be necessary to achieve optimal vitamin B12 status. Vitamin B12 status was measured in this study using a sensitive laboratory test (the plasma methylmalonic acid concentration).

When vitamin B12 is used for therapeutic purposes other than correcting a deficiency, injections are usually necessary to achieve results.

Sublingual forms of vitamin B12 are available, but there is no proof that they offer any advantage to oral supplements.

Where to Find It

Vitamin B12 is found in all foods of animal origin, including dairy, eggs, meat, poultry, and fish. According to one report, small, inconsistent amounts occur in seaweed (including nori and chlorella) and tempeh. Many researchers and healthcare professionals believe that people cannot rely on vegetarian sources to provide predictably sufficient quantities of vitamin B12. However, another study found substantial amounts of vitamin B12 in nori (at least 55 mcg per 100 grams of dry weight).

Possible Deficiencies

Vegans (vegetarians who also avoid dairy and eggs) frequently become deficient, though the process often takes many years. People with malabsorption conditions, including those with tapeworm infestation and those with bacterial overgrowth in the intestines, often suffer from vitamin B12 deficiency. Malabsorption of vitamin B12 can also result from pancreatic disease, the effects of gastrointestinal surgery, or various prescription drugs.

Side Effects

Oral vitamin B12 supplements are not generally associated with any side effects. Although quite rare, serious allergic reactions to injections of vitamin B12 (sometimes even life-threatening) have been reported. Whether these reactions are to the vitamin itself, or to preservatives or other substances in the injectable vitamin B12 solution, remains somewhat unclear. Most, but not all, injectable vitamin B12 contains preservatives.

In a double-blind trial, people with diabetes who also had with kidney disease received a daily placebo or 2.5 mg of folic acid, 1 mg of vitamin B12, and 25 mg of vitamin B6 for three years. Compared with the placebo, vitamin supplementation accelerated the decline in kidney function and increased the incidence of cardiovascular events (such as heart attacks) and heart disease-related deaths. Based on this study, diabetics with kidney disease should not take these vitamins without a doctor's supervision.

Pernicious anemia is a special form of vitamin B12 malabsorption due to impaired ability of certain cells in the stomach to make intrinsic factor—a substance needed for normal absorption of vitamin B12. By definition, all people with pernicious anemia are vitamin B12-deficient. They require either vitamin B12 injections or oral supplementation with very high levels (1000 mcg per day) of vitamin B12.

Older people with urinary incontinence and hearing loss have been reported to be at increased risk of B12 deficiency.

Infection with Helicobacter pylori, a common cause of gastritis and ulcers, has been shown to cause or contribute to adult vitamin B12 deficiency. H. pylori has this effect by damaging cells in the stomach that make hydrochloric acid—which is needed for normal absorption of vitamin B12. In one trial, H. pylori was detected in 56% of people with anemia due to vitamin B12 deficiency. Successful eradication of H. pylori led to improved blood levels of B12 in 40% of those infected. Other studies have also suggested a link between H. pylori infection and vitamin B12 deficiency. Elimination of H. pylori infection does not always improve vitamin B12 status. People with H. pylori infections should have vitamin B12 status monitored.

In a preliminary report, 47% of people with tinnitus and related disorders were found to have vitamin B12 deficiencies that may be helped by supplementation.

HIV-infected patients often have low blood levels of vitamin B12.

A disproportionately high amount of people with psychiatric disorders are deficient in B12. Significant vitamin B12 deficiency is associated with a doubled risk of severe depression, according to a study of physically disabled older women.

A preliminary study found that postmenopausal women who were in the lowest one-fifth of vitamin B12 consumption had an increased risk of developing breast cancer.

Although blood levels of vitamin B12 may be higher in alcoholics, actual body stores of vitamin B12 in the tissues (such as the liver) of alcoholics are frequently deficient.

Low blood levels of vitamin B12 are sometimes seen in pregnant women; however, this does not always indicate a vitamin B12 deficiency. The help of a healthcare professional is needed to determine when a true vitamin B12 deficiency exists in pregnant women with low blood levels of the vitamin.

Hydroxocobalamin (a form of vitamin B12) has been recognized for more than 40 years as an effective antidote to cyanide poisoning. It is currently being used in France for that purpose. Because of its safety, hydroxocobalamin is considered by some researchers to be an ideal treatment for cyanide poisoning.

CloseClose

Reliable and relatively consistent scientific data showing a substantial health benefit.

Contradictory, insufficient, or preliminary studies suggesting a health benefit or minimal health benefit.

For an herb, supported by traditional use but minimal or no scientific evidence. For a supplement, little scientific support.

Our proprietary “Star-Rating” system was developed to help you easily understand the amount of scientific support behind each supplement in relation to a specific health condition. While there is no way to predict whether a vitamin, mineral, or herb will successfully treat or prevent associated health conditions, our unique ratings tell you how well these supplements are understood by the medical community, and whether studies have found them to be effective for other people.

For over a decade, our team has combed through thousands of research articles published in reputable journals. To help you make educated decisions, and to better understand controversial or confusing supplements, our medical experts have digested the science into these three easy-to-follow ratings. We hope this provides you with a helpful resource to make informed decisions towards your health and well-being.

Vitamin B12 has been used in connection with the following health conditions:

Used for	Amount	Why
Anemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency	600 to 1,000 mcg daily	[3 stars] Taking vitamin B12 may help prevent and treat anemia. Deficiencies of iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid are the most common nutritional causes of anemia. Learn More
Close Anemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency 600 to 1,000 mcg daily Deficiencies of iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid are the most common nutritional causes of anemia.¹ Although rare, severe deficiencies of several other vitamins and minerals, including vitamin A,²^{, 3}vitamin B2,⁴vitamin B6,⁵^{, 6}vitamin C,⁷ and copper,⁸^{, 9} can also cause anemia by various mechanisms. Rare genetic disorders can cause anemias that may improve with large amounts of supplements such as vitamin B1.¹⁰^{, 11}
Depression and Vitamin B12 Deficiency	See a doctor for evaluation	[3 stars] Taking vitamin B12 can help counteract deficiencies related to depression. Learn More
Close Depression and Vitamin B12 Deficiency See a doctor for evaluation Deficiency of vitamin B12 can create disturbances in mood that respond to B12 supplementation.¹² Significant vitamin B12 deficiency is associated with a doubled risk of severe depression, according to a study of physically disabled older women.¹³ Depression caused by vitamin B12 deficiency can occur even if there is no B12 deficiency-related anemia.¹⁴ Mood has been reported to sometimes improve with high amounts of vitamin B12 (given by injection), even in the absence of a B12 deficiency.¹⁵ Supplying the body with high amounts of vitamin B12 can only be done by injection. However, in the case of overcoming a diagnosed B12 deficiency, one can follow an initial injection with oral maintenance supplementation (1 mg per day), even when the cause of the deficiency is a malabsorption problem such as pernicious anemia.
High Homocysteine (Folic Acid, Vitamin B6)	400 to 1,000 mcg of folic acid daily, 10 to 50 mg of vitamin B6 daily, and 50 to 300 mcg of vitamin B12 daily	[3 stars] Vitamin B6, folic acid, and vitamin B12 all play a role in converting homocysteine to other substances within the body and have consistently lowered homocysteine levels in trials. Learn More
Close High Homocysteine 400 to 1,000 mcg of folic acid daily, 10 to 50 mg of vitamin B6 daily, and 50 to 300 mcg of vitamin B12 daily Vitamin B6, folic acid, and vitamin B12 all play a role in converting homocysteine to other substances within the body. By so doing, they consistently lower homocysteine levels in research trials,¹⁶^{, 17}^{, 18} a finding that is now well accepted. Several studies have used (and some doctors recommend) 400–1,000 mcg of folic acid per day, 10–50 mg of vitamin B6 per day, and 50–300 mcg of vitamin B12 per day. Of these three vitamins, folic acid supplementation lowers homocysteine levels the most for the average person.¹⁹^{, 20} It also effectively lowers homocysteine in people on kidney dialysis.²¹ In 1996, the FDA required that all enriched flour, rice, pasta, cornmeal, and other grain products contain 140 mcg of folic acid per 3½ ounces.²² This level of fortification has led to a measurable decrease in homocysteine levels.²³ However, even higher levels of food fortification with folic acid have been reported to be more effective in lowering homocysteine,²⁴ suggesting that the FDA-mandated supplementation is inadequate to optimally protect people against high homocysteine levels. Therefore, people wishing to lower their homocysteine levels should continue to take folic acid supplements despite the FDA-mandated fortification program. Learn More
Vitamin B12 Deficiency	Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner	[3 stars] Vitamin B12, often given as an initial injection and then orally, may correct a deficiency. Learn More
Close Vitamin B12 Deficiency Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner Normally, only 3 to 4 mcg per day of vitamin B12 is required to prevent dietary deficiency. If gastrointestinal function is normal, even these small amounts of vitamin B12 from oral supplementation can prevent deficiency in vegans.²⁵ If a deficiency already exists, most doctors will recommend an initial vitamin B12 injection, then oral amounts ranging from 500 mcg to 1,000 mcg per day until symptoms subside; this is followed by a maintenance level of approximately 10 mcg per day to prevent future deficiencies. In a person with true PA, initial B12 supplementation should begin with an injection given by a qualified healthcare professional. After blood abnormalities are reversed, maintenance supplementation can be successfully accomplished with oral vitamin B12 at 1,000 to 2,000 mcg (1 to 2 mg) per day and does not require further injections.²⁶ In a person lacking intrinsic factor, only about 1% of this oral amount (10–20 mcg) will be absorbed, but that amount is more than sufficient to prevent future vitamin B12 deficiency.²⁷^{, 28} Many physicians are unaware of this well-researched option and thus unnecessarily recommend lifelong B12 injections.²⁹ Learn More
Age-Related Cognitive Decline and Vitamin B12 Deficiency	Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner	[2 stars] Improved brain function among seniors has been observed after correcting vitamin B12 deficiency with injections, but oral vitamin B12 has not been studied for ARCD. People with ARCD should be tested for vitamin B12 deficiency. Learn More
Close Age-Related Cognitive Decline and Vitamin B12 Deficiency Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner Supplementation with vitamin B12 may improve cognitive function in elderly people who have been diagnosed with a B12 deficiency. Such a deficiency in older people is not uncommon. In a preliminary trial, intramuscular injections of 1,000 mcg of vitamin B12 were given once per day for a week, then weekly for a month, then monthly thereafter for 6 to 12 months. Researchers noted “striking” improvements in cognitive function among 22 elderly people with vitamin B12 deficiency and cognitive decline.³⁰ Cognitive disorders due to vitamin B12 deficiency may also occur in people who do not exhibit the anemia that often accompanies vitamin B12 deficiency. For example, in a study of 141 elderly people with cognitive abnormalities due to B12 deficiency, 28% had no anemia. All participants were given intramuscular injections of vitamin B12, and all showed subsequent improvement in cognitive function.³¹ Vitamin B12 injections put more B12 into the body than is achievable with absorption from oral supplementation. Therefore, it is unclear whether the improvements in cognitive function described above were due simply to correcting the B12 deficiency or to a therapeutic effect of the higher levels of vitamin B12 obtained through injection. Elderly people with ARCD should be evaluated by a healthcare professional to see if they have a B12 deficiency. If a deficiency is present, the best way to proceed would be initially to receive vitamin B12 injections. If the injections result in cognitive improvement, some doctors would then recommend an experimental trial with high amounts of oral B12, despite a current lack of scientific evidence. If oral vitamin B12 is found to be less effective than B12 shots, the appropriate treatment would be to revert to injectable B12. At present, no research trials support the use of any vitamin B12 supplementation in people who suffer from ARCD but are not specifically deficient in vitamin B12.
Bell’s Palsy	Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner	[2 stars] Vitamin B12 injections have been shown to be beneficial for people with Bell’s palsy. Learn More
Close Bell’s Palsy Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner Vitamin B12 deficiency can cause nerve degeneration,³² and both oral³³ and injected³⁴^{, 35} vitamin B12 have been used to treat many types of nerve disorders.³⁶ One older case report described successful treatment of chronic Bell’s palsy with vitamin B12 injections of 500 to 1,000 mcg given every one to two days.³⁷ A more recent trial compared the effect of 500 mcg of injected vitamin B12 (in the form of methylcobalamin) given three times weekly for at least eight weeks—steroid medication, or both. Researchers found significantly faster recovery in the groups given B12 injections with or without steroids, compared to those given steroids alone.³⁸ These findings agree with earlier reports on the effectiveness of methylcobalamin injections for Bell’s palsy.³⁹^{, 40} It is unlikely that oral vitamin B12 would be similarly effective. People seeking B12 injections should consult a physician. Learn More
Celiac Disease (Vitamin B6, Folic Acid)	3 mg vitamin B6, 0.8 mg folic acid, and 0.5 mg vitamin B12	[2 stars] Daily supplementation with a combination of vitamin B6 (3 mg), folic acid (0.8 mg), and vitamin B12 (0.5 mg) have been shown to help relieve depression in people with celiac disease. Learn More
Close Celiac Disease 3 mg vitamin B6, 0.8 mg folic acid, and 0.5 mg vitamin B12 In one trial, 11 people with celiac disease suffered from persistent depression despite being on a gluten-free diet for more than two years. However, after supplementation with vitamin B6 (80 mg per day) for six months, the depression disappeared.⁴¹ Daily supplementation with a combination of vitamin B6 (3 mg), folic acid (0.8 mg), and vitamin B12 (0.5 mg) for 6 months also improved psychological well-being in people with long-standing celiac disease who had poor psychological well-being despite being on a strict gluten-free diet.⁴² Learn More
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome	Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner	[2 stars] Vitamin B12 deficiency may cause fatigue, but B12 injections have been reported benefits even without deficiency. A doctor should evaluate deficiency and whether B12 injections may help. Learn More
Close Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner Vitamin B12 deficiency may cause fatigue. However, some reports,⁴³ even double-blind ones,⁴⁴ have shown that people who are not deficient in B12 have increased energy following a series of vitamin B12 injections. Some sources in conventional medicine have discouraged such people from taking B12 shots despite this evidence.⁴⁵ Nonetheless, some doctors have continued to take the limited scientific support for B12 seriously.⁴⁶ In one preliminary trial, 2,500 to 5,000 mcg of vitamin B12 given by injection every two to three days led to improvement in 50 to 80% of a group of people with CFS; most improvement appeared after several weeks of B12 shots.⁴⁷ While the research in this area remains preliminary, people with CFS considering a trial of vitamin B12 injections should consult a doctor. Oral or sublingual B12 supplements are unlikely to obtain the same results as injectable B12, because the body’s ability to absorb large amounts is relatively poor. Learn More
Indigestion and Vitamin B12 Deficiency, Delayed Gastric Emptying, and Helicobacter Pylori Infection	1,000 mcg daily	[2 stars] Vitamin B12 may be beneficial for people with delayed emptying of the stomach in association with Helicobacter pylori infection and low blood levels of vitamin B12. Learn More
Close Indigestion and Vitamin B12 Deficiency, Delayed Gastric Emptying, and Helicobacter Pylori Infection 1,000 mcg daily Vitamin B12 supplementation may be beneficial for a subset of people suffering from indigestion: those with delayed emptying of the stomach contents in association with Helicobacter pylori infection and low blood levels of vitamin B12. In a double-blind study of people who satisfied those criteria, treatment with vitamin B12 significantly reduced symptoms of dyspepsia and improved stomach-emptying times.⁴⁸
Low Back Pain (Vitamin B1, Vitamin B6)	Take under medical supervision: 50 to 100 mg each of vitamins B1 and B6, and 250 to 500 mcg of vitamin B12, all taken three times per day	[2 stars] A combination of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 may prevent a common type of back pain linked to vertebral syndromes and may reduce the need for anti-inflammatory medications. Learn More
Close Low Back Pain Take under medical supervision: 50 to 100 mg each of vitamins B1 and B6, and 250 to 500 mcg of vitamin B12, all taken three times per day A combination of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 has proved useful for preventing a relapse of a common type of back pain linked to vertebral syndromes,⁴⁹ as well as reducing the amount of anti-inflammatory medications needed to control back pain, according to double-blind trials.⁵⁰ Typical amounts used have been 50–100 mg each of vitamins B1 and B6, and 250–500 mcg of vitamin B12, all taken three times per day.⁵¹^{, 52} Such high amounts of vitamin B6 require supervision by a doctor. Learn More
Macular Degeneration (Vitamin B6, Folic Acid)	2.5 mg folic acid, 50 mg vitamin B6, and 1 mg vitamin B12	[2 stars] In a double-blind study of female health professionals who had cardiovascular disease or risk factors, daily supplementation with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 significantly decreased age-related macular degeneration. Learn More
Close Macular Degeneration 2.5 mg folic acid, 50 mg vitamin B6, and 1 mg vitamin B12 In a double-blind study of female health professionals who had cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular disease risk factors, daily supplementation with folic acid (2.5 mg), vitamin B6 (50 mg), and vitamin B12 (1 mg) for 7.3 years significantly decreased the incidence of age-related macular degeneration.⁵³ Learn More
Male Infertility	1,500 mcg daily	[2 stars] Vitamin B12 is needed to maintain fertility. Vitamin B12 injections have been shown to increase sperm counts. Men Learn More
Close Male Infertility 1,500 mcg daily Vitamin B12 is needed to maintain fertility. Vitamin B12 injections have increased sperm counts for men with low numbers of sperm.⁵⁴ These results have been duplicated in double-blind research.⁵⁵ In one study, a group of infertile men were given oral vitamin B12 supplements (1,500 mcg per day of methylcobalamin) for 2 to 13 months. Approximately 60% of those taking the supplement experienced improved sperm counts.⁵⁶ However, controlled trials are needed to confirm these preliminary results. Men seeking vitamin B12 injections should consult a physician. Learn More
Migraine Headache	1 mg daily	[2 stars] In a preliminary trial, vitamin B12 reduced the frequency of migraine attacks by at least 50% in 10 of 19 people with recurrent migraines. Learn More
Close Migraine Headache 1 mg daily In a preliminary trial, administration of 1 mg of vitamin B12 per day (by the intranasal route) for 3 months reduced the frequency of migraine attacks by at least 50% in 10 of 19 people with recurrent migraines.⁵⁷ A placebo-controlled study is needed to determine how much of this improvement was due to a placebo effect. Learn More
Osteoporosis and High Homocysteine	1,500 mcg with 5 mg of folic acid daily	[2 stars] Homocystinuria, a condition associated with high homocysteine levels, frequently causes osteoporosis. By lowering homocysteine levels, vitamin B12 may help prevent osteoporosis. Learn More
Close Osteoporosis and High Homocysteine 1,500 mcg with 5 mg of folic acid daily Folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 are known to reduce blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine, and homocystinuria, a condition associated with high homocysteine levels, frequently causes osteoporosis. Therefore, some researchers have suggested that these vitamins might help prevent osteoporosis by lowering homocysteine levels.⁵⁸ In a double-blind study of people who had suffered a stroke and had high homocysteine levels, daily supplementation with 5 mg of folic acid and 1,500 mcg of vitamin B12 for two years reduced the incidence of fractures by 78%, compared with a placebo.⁵⁹ The reduction in fracture risk appeared to be due to an improvement in bone quality, rather than to a change in bone mineral density. However, supplementation with these vitamins did not reduce fracture risk in people who had only mildly elevated homocysteine levels and relatively high pretreatment folic acid levels.⁶⁰ For the purpose of lowering homocysteine, amounts of folic acid and vitamins B6 and B12 found in high-potency B-complex supplements and multivitamins should be adequate.
Schizophrenia and High Homocysteine (Folic Acid, Vitamin B6)	Take folic acid (2 mg), vitamin B6 (25 mg), and vitamin B12 (400 mcg) daily	[2 stars] People with schizophrenia who have high homocysteine levels may improve symptoms by supplementing with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12. Learn More
Close Schizophrenia and High Homocysteine Take folic acid (2 mg), vitamin B6 (25 mg), and vitamin B12 (400 mcg) daily People with schizophrenia may have a greater tendency to be deficient in folic acid, than the general population⁶¹ and they may show improvement when given supplements. A preliminary trial found that, among schizophrenic patients with folic acid deficiency, those given folic acid supplements had more improvement, and shorter hospital stays than those not given supplements.⁶² In a double-blind trial, a very high amount of folic acid (15 mg daily) was given to schizophrenic patients being treated with psychiatric medications who had low or borderline folic acid levels. The patients receiving the folic acid supplements had significant improvement, which became more significant over the six-month course of the trial.⁶³ The symptoms of folic acid deficiency can be similar to those of schizophrenia, and two cases of wrong “schizophrenia” diagnoses have been reported.⁶⁴^{, 65} In one of these cases, an initial supplement of 20 mg daily of folic acid and a maintenance supplemental intake of 10 mg daily, led to resolution of symptoms.⁶⁶ In another double-blind study, daily supplementation with folic acid (2 mg), vitamin B6 (25 mg), and vitamin B12 (400 mcg) for three months improved symptoms of schizophrenia compared with a placebo.⁶⁷ All of the participants in this study had elevated blood levels of homocysteine, which can be decreased by taking these three B vitamins. Based on this study, it would seem reasonable to measure homocysteine levels in people with schizophrenia and, if they are elevated, to supplement with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12.
Sickle Cell Anemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency	Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner	[2 stars] People with sickle cell anemia may be deficient in vitamin B12. Intramuscular vitamin B12 injections improved symptoms for patients in one study. Learn More
Close Sickle Cell Anemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner Sickle cell anemia may result in vitamin B12 deficiency. A study of children with sickle cell anemia found them to have a higher incidence of vitamin B12 deficiency than children without the disease.⁶⁸ A study of 85 adults with sickle cell anemia showed more of them had vitamin B12 deficiency than did a group of healthy people.⁶⁹ A subsequent preliminary trial demonstrated that for patients with low blood levels of vitamin B12, intramuscular injections of 1 mg of vitamin B12 weekly for 12 weeks led to a significant reduction in symptoms.⁷⁰ Researchers do not know whether people with sickle cell anemia who are found to be deficient in vitamin B12 would benefit equally from taking vitamin B12 supplements orally. Preliminary research has found that patients with sickle cell anemia are more likely to have elevated blood levels of homocysteine compared to healthy people.⁷¹^{, 72} Elevated homocysteine is recognized as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.⁷³ In particular, high levels of homocysteine in sickle cell anemia patients have been associated with a higher incidence of stroke.⁷⁴ Deficiencies of vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic acid occur more frequently in people with sickle cell anemia than in others⁷⁵^{, 76}^{, 77} and are a cause of high homocysteine levels.⁷⁸ A controlled trial found homocysteine levels were reduced 53% in children with sickle cell anemia receiving a 2–4 mg supplement of folic acid per day, depending on age, but vitamin B6 or B12 had no effect on homocysteine levels.⁷⁹ A double-blind trial of children with sickle cell anemia found that children given 5 mg of folic acid per day had less painful swelling of the hands and feet compared with those receiving placebo, but blood abnormalities and impaired growth rate associated with sickle cell anemia were not improved.⁸⁰ In the treatment of sickle cell anemia, folic acid is typically supplemented in amounts of 1,000 mcg daily.⁸¹ Anyone taking this amount of folic acid should have vitamin B12 status assessed by a healthcare professional.
Thalassemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency	If deficient: 300 to1,000 mcg daily	[2 stars] Some studies have found people with thalassemia to be frequently deficient in vitamin B12, supplementing with the vitamin may help. Learn More
Close Thalassemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency If deficient: 300 to1,000 mcg daily Test tube studies have shown that propionyl-L-carnitine (a form of L-carnitine) protects red blood cells of people with thalassemia against free radical damage.⁸² In a preliminary study, children with beta thalassemia major who took 100 mg of L-carnitine per 2.2 pounds of body weight per day for three months had a significantly decreased need for blood transfusions.⁸³ Some studies have found people with thalassemia to be frequently deficient in folic acid, vitamin B12,⁸⁴ and zinc.⁸⁵^{, 86} Researchers have reported improved growth rates in zinc-deficient thalassemic children who were given zinc supplements of 22.5 to 90 mg per day, depending on age.⁸⁷^{, 88}Magnesium has been reported to be low in thalassemia patients in some,⁸⁹^{, 90} but not all,⁹¹ studies. A small, preliminary study reported that oral supplements of magnesium, 7.2 mg per 2.2 pounds of body weight per day, improved some red blood cell abnormalities in thalassemia patients.⁹²
Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Neuropathy	Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner	[2 stars] Vitamin B12 is needed for normal nerve cell function, and supplementing with it may improve symptoms of diabetic neuropathy. Learn More
Close Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Neuropathy Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner Vitamin B12 is needed for normal functioning of nerve cells. Vitamin B12 taken orally has reduced symptoms of nerve damage caused by diabetes in 39% of people studied; when given both intravenously and orally, two-thirds of people improved.⁹³ In a preliminary trial, people with nerve damage due to kidney disease or to diabetes plus kidney disease received intravenous injections of 500 mcg of methylcobalamin (the main form of vitamin B12 found in the blood) three times a day for six months in addition to kidney dialysis. Nerve pain was significantly reduced and nerve function significantly improved in those who received the injections.⁹⁴ Oral vitamin B12 up to 500 mcg three times per day is recommended by some practitioners.
Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Neuropathy (Vitamin B1)	Refer to label instructions	[2 stars] Taking vitamin B1 combined with vitamin B12 may improve symptoms of diabetic neuropathy. Learn More
Close Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Neuropathy A controlled trial in Africa found that supplementing with both vitamin B1 (25 mg per day) and vitamin B6 (50 mg per day) led to significant improvement of symptoms of diabetic neuropathy after four weeks.⁹⁵ However, since this was a trial conducted among people in a vitamin B1–deficient developing country, these improvements might not occur in other people with diabetes. Another trial found that combining vitamin B1 (in a special fat-soluble form) and vitamin B6 plus vitamin B12 in high but variable amounts led to improvement in some aspects of diabetic neuropathy in 12 weeks.⁹⁶ As a result, some doctors recommend that people with diabetic neuropathy supplement with vitamin B1, though the optimal level of intake remains unknown.
Urinary Incontinence (if deficient )	See a doctor to test for deficiency	[2 stars] Vitamin B12 deficency can cause urinary incontinence that may be corrected with supplementation. Learn More
Close Urinary Incontinence See a doctor to test for deficiency Vitamin B12 deficency can cause urinary incontinence that can be cured with B12 supplementation.⁹⁷ One preliminary study,⁹⁸ but not others,⁹⁹^{, 100} have found that low blood levels of B12 were associated with urinary incontinence in older people. Controlled trials are needed to determine whether B12 supplementation might be useful as a treatment for the common types of urinary incontinence. Learn More
Vitiligo	Refer to label instructions	[2 stars] Studies have shown vitamin B12 to be effective at skin repigmentation in people with vitiligo. Learn More
Close Vitiligo A clinical report describes the use of vitamin supplements in the treatment of vitiligo.¹⁰¹Folic acid and/or vitamin B12 and vitamin C levels were abnormally low in most of the 15 people studied. Supplementation with large amounts of folic acid (1–10 mg per day), along with vitamin C (1 gram per day) and intramuscular vitamin B12 injections (1,000 mcg every two weeks), produced marked repigmentation in eight people. These improvements became apparent after three months, but complete repigmentation required one to two years of continuous supplementation. In another study of people with vitiligo, oral supplementation with folic acid (10 mg per day) and vitamin B12 (2,000 mcg per day), combined with sun exposure, resulted in some repigmentation after three to six months in about half of the participants.¹⁰² This combined regimen was more effective than either vitamin supplementation or sun exposure alone. Learn More
Age-Related Cognitive Decline (Vitamin B6, Folic Acid)	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] In a study of women with cardiovascular disease or related risk factors, supplementing daily with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 appeared to prevent age-related cognitive decline in those with low dietary intake. Learn More
Close Age-Related Cognitive Decline In a study of female health professionals who had cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular disease risk factors, daily supplementation with folic acid (2.5 mg), vitamin B6 (50 mg), and vitamin B12 (1 mg) for 5.4 years had no effect on cognitive function. However, supplementation appeared to prevent age-related cognitive decline in the 30% of women who had low dietary intake of B vitamins.¹⁰³ Learn More
Alzheimer’s Disease	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Some researchers feel Alzheimer’s disease may be related to vitamin B12 deficiency. Learn More
Close Alzheimer’s Disease Some researchers have found an association between Alzheimer’s disease and deficiencies of vitamin B12 and folic acid;¹⁰⁴^{, 105} however, other researchers consider such deficiencies to be of only minor importance.¹⁰⁶ In a study of elderly Canadians, those with low blood levels of folate were more likely to have dementia of all types, including Alzheimer’s disease, than those with higher levels of folate.¹⁰⁷ Little is known about whether supplementation with either vitamin would significantly help people with this disease. Nonetheless, it makes sense for people with Alzheimer’s disease to be medically tested for vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies and to be treated if they are deficient. Learn More
Asthma	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] In some people, asthma symptoms can be triggered by ingesting sulfites, a food additive. Pretreatment with a large amount of vitamin B12 reduced some children’s asthmatic reaction to sulfites in one trial. Learn More
Close Asthma In some people with asthma, symptoms can be triggered by ingestion of food additives known as sulfites. Pretreatment with a large amount of vitamin B12 (1,500 mcg orally) reduced the asthmatic reaction to sulfites in children with sulfite sensitivity in one preliminary trial.¹⁰⁸ The trace mineral molybdenum also helps the body detoxify sulfites.¹⁰⁹ While some doctors use molybdenum to treat selected patients with asthma, there is little published research on this treatment, and it is not known what an appropriate level of molybdenum supplementation would be. A typical American diet contains about 200 to 500 mcg per day,¹¹⁰ and preliminary short-term trials have used supplemental amounts of 500 mcg per day.¹¹¹ People who suspect sulfite-sensitive asthma should consult with a physician before taking molybdenum. Learn More
Atherosclerosis	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine have been linked to atherosclerosis and heart disease in most research. Taking vitamin B12 may help lower homocysteine levels. Learn More
Close Atherosclerosis Blood levels of an amino acid called homocysteine have been linked to atherosclerosis and heart disease in most research,¹¹²^{, 113} though uncertainty remains about whether elevated homocysteine actually causes heart disease.¹¹⁴^{, 115} Although some reports have found associations between homocysteine levels and dietary factors, such as coffee and protein intakes,¹¹⁶ evidence linking specific foods to homocysteine remains preliminary. Higher blood levels of vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic acid are associated with low levels of homocysteine¹¹⁷ and supplementing with these vitamins lowers homocysteine levels.¹¹⁸^{, 119} While several trials have consistently shown that B6, B12, and folic acid lower homocysteine, the amounts used vary from study to study. Many doctors recommend 50 mg of vitamin B6, 100–300 mcg of vitamin B12, and 500–800 mcg of folic acid. Even researchers finding only inconsistent links between homocysteine and heart disease have acknowledged that a B vitamin might offer protection against heart disease independent of the homocysteine-lowering effect.¹²⁰ In one trial, people with normal homocysteine levels had demonstrable reversal of atherosclerosis when supplementing B vitamins (2.5 mg folic acid, 25 mg vitamin B6, and 250 mcg of vitamin B12 per day).¹²¹ Similar results were seen in another study.¹²² For the few cases in which vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic acid fail to normalize homocysteine, adding 6 grams per day of betaine (trimethylglycine) may be effective.¹²³ Of these four supplements, folic acid appears to be the most important.¹²⁴ Attempts to lower homocysteine by simply changing the diet rather than by using vitamin supplements have not been successful.¹²⁵ Learn More
Bipolar Disorder	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 deficiency has been associated with both mania and depression. In one study, these symptoms cleared after treatment with B12 injections. Learn More
Close Bipolar Disorder Both folic acid and vitamin B12 are used in the body to manufacture serotonin and other neurotransmitters. It is well known that deficiency of either nutrient is associated with depression.¹²⁶^{, 127} There is some evidence that patients diagnosed with mania are also more likely to have folate deficiencies than healthy controls.¹²⁸ Other studies, however, have found that folic acid deficiency was not more common in bipolar patients taking lithium than in healthy people.¹²⁹^{, 130}^{, 131} Some studies have found that people who take lithium long term, and who also have high blood levels of folic acid, respond better to lithium.¹³²^{, 133} Not all studies have confirmed these findings, however.¹³⁴ A double-blind study of patients receiving lithium therapy showed that the addition of 200 mcg of folic acid per day resulted in clinical improvement, whereas placebo did not.¹³⁵ There have been case reports of both mania and depression associated with vitamin B12 deficiency, and these symptoms cleared after treatment with injections of B12.¹³⁶^{, 137} However, B12 deficiency has not been reported in bipolar disorder patients, and no studies have been published investigating the effects of vitamin B12 supplementation in people with bipolar disorder. Learn More
Bursitis	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 injections have been shown to relieve symptoms of acute shoulder bursitis and decrease the amount of calcification in some cases. Learn More
Close Bursitis In a preliminary study, intramuscular injections of vitamin B12¹³⁸^{, 139} relieved the symptoms of acute subdeltoid (shoulder) bursitis and also decreased the amount of calcification in some cases. This mechanism is not understood. Oral B vitamins are unlikely to have the same effect, since the body’s absorption of vitamin B12 is quite limited. A doctor should be consulted regarding B12 or B12 injections. Learn More
Canker Sores	3 to 1,000 mcg daily	[1 star] Recurrent canker sores might be related to vitamin B12 deficiency, but research has shown that even without deficiency supplementing this vitamin may be beneficial. Learn More
Close Canker Sores 3 to 1,000 mcg daily Several preliminary studies,¹⁴⁰^{, 141}^{, 142}^{, 143} though not all,¹⁴⁴ have found a surprisingly high incidence of iron and B vitamin deficiency among people with recurrent canker sores. Treating these deficiencies has been reported in preliminary and controlled studies to reduce or eliminate recurrences in most cases.¹⁴⁵^{, 146}^{, 147} In addition, a double-blind study found that supplementing with vitamin B12 prevented recurrences even in people who were not deficient in the vitamin.¹⁴⁸ The amount used in that study was 1,000 mcg twice a day for six months. Supplementing daily with B vitamins—300 mg vitamin B1, 20 mg vitamin B2, and 150 mg vitamin B6—has been reported to provide some people with relief.¹⁴⁹ Thiamine (B1) deficiency specifically has been linked to an increased risk of canker sores.¹⁵⁰ The right supplemental level of iron requires diagnosis of an iron deficiency by a healthcare professional using lab tests. Learn More
Crohn’s Disease	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 is needed to repair intestinal cells damaged by Crohn’s disease. Supplementation may offset some of the deficiency caused by Crohn’s-related malabsorption. Learn More
Close Crohn’s Disease Crohn’s disease often leads to malabsorption. As a result, deficiencies of many nutrients are common. For this reason, it makes sense for people with Crohn’s disease to take a high potency multivitamin-mineral supplement. In particular, deficiencies in zinc, folic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin D, and iron have been reported.¹⁵¹^{, 152}^{, 153} Zinc, folic acid, and vitamin B12 are all needed to repair intestinal cells damaged by Crohn’s disease. Some doctors recommend 25 to 50 mg of zinc (balanced with 2 to 4 mg of copper), 800 mcg of folic acid, and 800 mcg of vitamin B12. Iron status should be evaluated by a doctor before considering supplementation. Learn More
Dermatitis Herpetiformis and Vitamin B12 Deficiency	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Supplementing with vitamin B12 can counteract the nutrient deficiency that often occurs as a result of malabsorption. Learn More
Close Dermatitis Herpetiformis and Vitamin B12 Deficiency People with DH frequently have mild malabsorption (difficulty absorbing certain nutrients) associated with low stomach acid (hypochlorhydria) and inflammation of the stomach lining (atrophic gastritis).¹⁵⁴ Mild malabsorption may result in anemia¹⁵⁵ and nutritional deficiencies of iron, folic acid,¹⁵⁶^{, 157}vitamin B12,¹⁵⁸^{, 159} and zinc.¹⁶⁰^{, 161}^{, 162} More severe malabsorption may result in loss of bone mass.¹⁶³ Additional subtle deficiencies of vitamins and minerals are possible, but have not been investigated. Therefore, some doctors recommend people with DH have their nutritional status checked regularly with laboratory studies. These doctors may also recommend multivitamin-mineral supplements and, to correct the low stomach acid, supplemental betaine HCl (a source of hydrochloric acid).
Down’s Syndrome	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] People with Down’s syndrome may be deficient in vitamin B12 and may benefit from supplementation. Learn More
Close Down’s Syndrome The red blood cells of people with Down’s syndrome are unusual in ways that suggest either vitamin B12 or folic acid deficiency.¹⁶⁴^{, 165}^{, 166} However, folic acid levels have been found to be normal in each of these studies, and only one study has found lower levels of vitamin B12 in Down’s syndrome as compared with healthy individuals.¹⁶⁷ Intervention trials using either vitamin B12 or folic acid have not been done. Learn More
Heart Attack	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Taking vitamin B12 may reduce blood levels of homocysteine. High homocysteine levels have been linked to an increased heart attack risk. Learn More
Close Heart Attack High blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine have been linked to an increased risk of heart attack in most,¹⁶⁸^{, 169}^{, 170}^{, 171} though not all,¹⁷²^{, 173} studies. A blood test screening for levels of homocysteine, followed by supplementation with 400 mcg of folic acid and 500 mcg of vitamin B12 per day could prevent a significant number of heart attacks, according to one analysis.¹⁷⁴Folic acid¹⁷⁵^{, 176} and vitamins B6 and B12 are known to lower homocysteine.¹⁷⁷ There is a clear association between low blood levels of folate and increased risk of heart attacks in men.¹⁷⁸ Based on the available research, some doctors recommend 50 mg of vitamin B6, 100–300 mcg of vitamin B12, and 500–800 mcg of folic acid per day for people at high risk of heart attack. Learn More
Hepatitis	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 (with or without folic acid) has been reported in trials from the 1950s to help some people with hepatitis. Learn More
Close Hepatitis Vitamin B12 (with or without folic acid) has been reported in trials from the 1950s to help some people with hepatitis.¹⁷⁹^{, 180} Vitamin B12 injections are likely to be more beneficial than oral administration, though 1,000 mcg (taken orally) each day can also be supplemented. Learn More
HIV and AIDS Support	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] In HIV-positive people with B-vitamin deficiency, B vitamins appear to delay progression to and death from AIDS. Learn More
Close HIV and AIDS Support In HIV-positive people with B-vitamin deficiency, the use of B-complex vitamin supplements appears to delay progression to and death from AIDS.¹⁸¹ Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency has been identified in nearly one-quarter of people with AIDS.¹⁸² It has been suggested that a thiamine deficiency may contribute to some of the neurological abnormalities that are associated with AIDS. Vitamin B6 deficiency was found in more than one-third of HIV-positive men; vitamin B6 deficiency was associated with decreased immune function in this group.¹⁸³ In a population study of HIV-positive people, intake of vitamin B6 at more than twice the recommended dietary allowance (RDA is 2 mg per day for men and 1.6 mg per day for women) was associated with improved survival.¹⁸⁴ Low blood levels of folic acid and vitamin B12 are also common in HIV-positive people.¹⁸⁵ Learn More
Hives	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 injections have been reported to reduce the severity of acute hives and the frequency and severity of outbreaks in chronic cases. Learn More
Close Hives Vitamin B12 has been reported to reduce the severity of acute hives as well as to reduce the frequency and severity of outbreaks in chronic cases.¹⁸⁶^{, 187} The amount used in these reported case studies was 1,000 mcg by injection per week. Whether taking B12 supplements orally would have these effects remains unknown. On rare occasions, vitamin B12 injections cause hives in susceptible people.¹⁸⁸ Whether such reactions are actually triggered by exposure to large amounts of vitamin B12 or to preservatives and other substances found in most vitamin B12 injections remains unclear. Learn More
Immune Function	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] A deficiency of vitamin B12 has been associated with decreased immune function. Restoring vitamin B12 levels may improve levels of immune cells. Learn More
Close Immune Function A deficiency of vitamin B12 has been associated with decreased immune function. In a controlled trial, people with vitamin B12 deficiency anemia were also found to have markedly decreased levels of white blood cells associated with immune function.¹⁸⁹ Restoration of vitamin B12 stores by means of injections improved levels of these immune cells, suggesting an important role for vitamin B12 in immune function. Learn More
Insomnia	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] In two small preliminary trials, people with insomnia resulting from disorders of the sleep-wake rhythm improved after supplementing with vitamin B12. Learn More
Close Insomnia In two small preliminary trials, people with insomnia resulting from disorders of the sleep-wake rhythm improved after supplementing with vitamin B12 (1,500 to 3,000 mcg per day).¹⁹⁰^{, 191} Learn More
Lung Cancer	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Together, folic acid and vitamin B12 help cells replicate normally. In one trial, smokers with precancerous lung changes who were given folic acid and vitamin B12 saw a significant reversal of their condition. Learn More
Close Lung Cancer Folic acid and vitamin B12 work together in the body to help cells replicate normally. In a double-blind trial, smokers with precancerous changes in the lungs were given a placebo or the combination of 10,000 mcg of folic acid and 500 mcg of vitamin B12 per day for four months.¹⁹² A significant reversal of precancerous changes occurred in those given vitamin supplements compared with those given the placebo.¹⁹³ No trials have investigated whether either vitamin given alone or the combination of both vitamins would help to treat people who already have lung cancer. Learn More
Pain	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 appears to have pain-killing properties. In people with vertebral pain syndromes, injections of massive amounts of vitamin B12 have reportedly relieved pain. Learn More
Close Pain Vitamin B12 has exhibited pain-killing properties in animal studies.¹⁹⁴ In humans with vertebral pain syndromes, injections of massive amounts of vitamin B12 (5,000 to 10,000 mcg per day) have reportedly provided pain relief.¹⁹⁵ Further studies are needed to confirm the efficacy of this treatment. Learn More
Phenylketonuria and Vitamin B12 Deficiency	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 is found almost exclusively in foods of animal origin, which are restricted on the PKU diet. Supplementing with vitamin B12 may correct a deficiency. Learn More
Close Phenylketonuria and Vitamin B12 Deficiency People with PKU may be deficient in several nutrients, due to the restricted diet which is low in protein and animal fat. Deficiencies of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs),¹⁹⁶^{, 197}^{, 198}selenium,¹⁹⁹^{, 200}^{, 201}^{, 202}vitamin B12,²⁰³ and vitamin K may develop on this diet.²⁰⁴ Vitamin B12 is found almost exclusively in foods of animal origin, which are restricted on the PKU diet. People on the PKU diet who are inconsistent in their use of a vitamin B12 supplement may become deficient in this vitamin. In a survey of young adults with PKU, 32% were found to have low or low-normal blood levels of vitamin B12.²⁰⁵Vitamin B12 deficiency can cause anemia and nerve problems.
Pre- and Post-Surgery Health	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] In one trial, a combination of vitamins B1, B6, and B12 before and after surgery prevented post-surgical reductions in immune activity. Learn More
Close Pre- and Post-Surgery Health Vitamin B1, given as intramuscular injections of 120 mg daily for several days before surgery, resulted in less reduction of immune system activity after surgery in a preliminary trial.²⁰⁶ In a controlled trial, an oral B vitamin combination providing 100 mg of B1, 200 mg of vitamin B6, and 200 mcg of vitamin B12 daily given for five weeks before surgery and for two weeks following surgery also prevented post-surgical reductions in immune activity.²⁰⁷ However, no research has explored any other benefits of B vitamin supplementation in surgery patients. Learn More
Retinopathy	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] In one study, adding vitamin B12 to the insulin injections of children with diabetic retinopathy helped relieve symptoms. Learn More
Close Retinopathy One study investigated the effect of adding 100 mcg per day of vitamin B12 to the insulin injections of 15 children with diabetic retinopathy.²⁰⁸ After one year, signs of retinopathy disappeared in 7 of 15 cases; after two years, 8 of 15 were free of retinopathy. Adults with diabetic retinopathy did not benefit from vitamin B12 injections. Consultation with a physician is necessary before adding injectable vitamin B12 to insulin. Learn More
Schizophrenia	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] People with schizophrenia may have low vitamin B12 levels. Supplementing with the vitamin may correct an imbalance and improve symptoms. Learn More
Close Schizophrenia Vitamin B12 deficiency can cause symptoms that are similar to those of schizophrenia and one case has been reported in which such symptoms cleared after supplementation with vitamin B12.²⁰⁹ Some studies have reported finding lower levels of vitamin B12 in people with schizophrenia than in the general population,²¹⁰ but others have found no difference.²¹¹ No trials of vitamin B12 supplementation in schizophrenic patients have been published. Learn More
Shingles and Postherpetic Neuralgia	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 injections may relieve the symptoms of postherpetic neuralgia. Learn More
Close Shingles and Postherpetic Neuralgia Some doctors have observed that injections of vitamin B12 appear to relieve the symptoms of postherpetic neuralgia.²¹²^{, 213} However, since these studies did not include a control group, the possibility of a placebo effect cannot be ruled out. Oral vitamin B12 supplements have not been tested, but they are not likely to be effective against postherpetic neuralgia. Learn More
Stroke and High Homocysteine	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Elevated blood levels of homocysteine have been linked to stroke risk in most studies. Supplementing with vitamin B12 may lower homocysteine levels and reduce stroke risk. Learn More
Close Stroke and High Homocysteine Elevated blood levels of homocysteine, a toxic amino acid byproduct, have been linked to risk of stroke in most studies.²¹⁴^{, 215}^{, 216} Supplementation with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 generally lowers homocysteine levels in humans.²¹⁷^{, 218}^{, 219} In a pooled analysis (meta-analysis) of eight randomized trials, folic acid supplementation in varying amounts (usually 0.5 mg to 5 mg per day) reduced stroke risk by 18%.²²⁰
Tinnitus	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Vitamin B12 injections may help reduce the severity of tinnitus in people who are deficient in the vitamin. Learn More
Close Tinnitus People exposed to loud noise on the job who develop tinnitus are commonly deficient in Vitamin B12.²²¹ Intramuscular injections of vitamin B12 reduced the severity of tinnitus in some of these people. Injectable vitamin B12 is available only by prescription. The effect of oral vitamin B12 on tinnitus has not been studied. Learn More
Type 1 Diabetes	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] Supplementing with vitamin B12 may improve symptoms of diabetic neuropathy. Learn More
Close Type 1 Diabetes is needed for normal functioning of nerve cells. Vitamin B12 taken orally has reduced symptoms of nerve damage caused by diabetes in 39% of people studied; when given both intravenously and orally, two-thirds of people improved. In a preliminary trial, people with nerve damage due to kidney disease or to diabetes plus kidney disease received intravenous injections of 500 mcg of methylcobalamin (the main form of vitamin B12 found in the blood) three times a day for six months in addition to kidney dialysis. Nerve pain was significantly reduced and nerve function significantly improved in those who received the injections. Oral vitamin B12 up to 500 mcg three times per day is recommended by some practitioners. Learn More
Vitamin B12 Deficiency in People with Low Stomach Acid (Multivitamin)	Refer to label instructions	[1 star] For people who have inadequate absorption of vitamin B12 due to low stomach acid, taking a multivitamin–mineral supplement can help correct a deficiency.

References

1. Little DR. Ambulatory management of common forms of anemia. Am Fam Physician 1999;59:1598–604 [review].

2. Hodges RE, Sauberlich HE, Canham JE, et al. Hematopoietic studies in vitamin A deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 1978;31:876–85 [review].

3. Bloem MW. Interdependence of vitamin A and iron: an important association for programmes of anaemia control. Proc Nutr Soc 1995;54:501–8 [review].

4. Lane M, Alfrey CP. The anemia of human riboflavin deficiency. Blood 1965;25:432–42.

5. Orehek AJ, Kollas CD. Refractory postpartum anemia due to vitamin B6 deficiency. Ann Intern Med 1997;126(10):834–5 [letter].

6. Iwama H, Iwase O, Hayashi S, et al. Macrocytic anemia with anisocytosis due to alcohol abuse and vitamin B6 deficiency. Rinsho Ketsueki 1998;39:1127–30 [in Japanese].

7. Hirschmann JV, Raugi GJ. Adult scurvy. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999;41:895–906 [review].

8. Summerfield AL, Steinberg FU, Gonzalez JG. Morphologic findings in bone marrow precursor cells in zinc-induced copper deficiency anemia. Am J Clin Pathol 1992;97:665–8.

9. Freycon F, Pouyau G. Rare nutritional deficiency anemia: deficiency of copper and vitamin E. Sem Hop 1983;59:488–93 [review] [in French].

10. Borgna-Pignatti C, Marradi P, Pinelli L, et al. Thiamine-responsive anemia in DIDMOAD syndrome. J Pediatr 1989;114:405–10.

11. Neufeld EJ, Mandel H, Raz T, et al. Localization of the gene for thiamine-responsive megaloblastic anemia syndrome, on the long arm of chromosome 1, by homozygosity mapping. Am J Hum Genet 1997;61:1335–41.

12. Lindenbaum J, Healton EB, Savage DG, et al. Neuropsychiatric disorders caused by cobalamin deficiency in the absence of anemia or macrocytosis. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1720–8.

13. Penninx BW, Guralnik JM, Ferrucci L, et al. Vitamin B(12) deficiency and depression in physically disabled older women: epidemiologic evidence from the Women’s Health and Aging Study. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:715–21.

14. Holmes JM. Cerebral manifestations of vitamin B12 deficiency. J Nutr Med 1991;2:89–90.

15. Ellis FR, Nasser S. A pilot study of vitamin B12 in the treatment of tiredness. Br J Nutr 1973;30:277–83.

16. Glueck CJ, Shaw P, Land JE, et al. Evidence that homocysteine is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis in hyperlipidemic patients. Am J Cardiol 1995;75:132–6.

17. Ubbink JB, Vermaak WJH, van der Merwe A, Becker PJ. Vitamin B12, vitamin B6, and folate nutritional status in men with hyperhomocysteinemia. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:47–53.

18. Ubbink JB, Vermaak WJH, ven der Merwe A, et al. Vitamin requirements for the treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in humans. J Nutr 1994;124:1927–33.

19. Dierkes J, Kroesen M, Pietrzik K. Folic acid and vitamin B6 supplementation and plasma homocysteine concentrations in healthy young women. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1998;68:98–103.

20. Stein JH, McBride PE. Hyperhomocysteinemia and atherosclerotic vascular disease: pathophysiology, screening, and treatment. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:1301–6.

21. McGregor D, Shand B, Lynn K. A controlled trial of the effect of folate supplements on homocysteine, lipids and hemorheology in end-stage renal disease. Nephron 2000;85:215–20.

22. Food standards: amendment of standards of identity for enriched grain products to require addition of folic acid. Fed Regist 1996;61:8781–97.

23. Jacques PF, Selhub J, Bostom AG, et al. The effect of folic acid fortification on plasma folate and total homocysteine concentrations. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1449–54.

24. Malinow MR, Duell PB, Hess DL, et al. Reduction of plasma homocyst(e)ine levels by breakfast cereal fortified with folic acid in patients with coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1009–15.

25. Little DR. Ambulatory management of common forms of anemia. Am Fam Physician 1999;59:1598–604.

26. Kuzminski AM, Del Giacco EJ, Allen RH, et al. Effective treatment of cobalamin deficiency with oral cobalamin. Blood 1998;92:1191–8.

27. Kondo H. Haematological effects of oral cobalamin preparations on patients with megaloblastic anaemia. Acta Haematol 1998;9:200–5.

28. Berlin R, Berlin H, Brante G, Pilbrant A. Vitamin B12 body stores during oral and parenteral treatment of pernicious anaemia. Acta Med Scand 1978;204:81–4.

29. Lederle FA. Oral cobalamin for pernicious anemia. Medicine’s best kept secret? JAMA 1991;265(1):94–5.

30. Martin DC, Francis J, Protetch J, Huff FJ. Time dependency of cognitive recovery with cobalamin replacement: report of a pilot study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992;40(2):168–72.

31. Lindenbaum J, Healton EB, Savage DG, et al. Neuropsychiatric disorders caused by cobalamin deficiency in the absence of anemia or macrocytosis. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1720–8.

32. Savage DG, Lindenbaum J. Neurological complications of acquired cobalamin deficiency: clinical aspects. Baillieres Clin Haematol 1995;8:657–78 [review].

33. Yaqub BA, Siddique A, Sulimani R. Effects of methylcobalamin on diabetic neuropathy. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1992;94:105–11.

34. Ide H, Fujiya S, Asanuma Y, et al. Clinical usefulness of intrathecal injection of methylcobalamin in patients with diabetic neuropathy. Clin Ther 1987;9:183–92.

35. Kuwabara S, Nakazawa R, Azuma N, et al. Intravenous methylcobalamin treatment for uremic and diabetic neuropathy in chronic hemodialysis patients. Intern Med 1999;38:472–5.

36. Yamane K, Usui T, Yamamoto T, et al. Clinical efficacy of intravenous plus oral mecobalamin in patients with peripheral neuropathy using vibration perception thresholds as an indicator of improvement. Curr Ther Res 1995;56:656–70 [review].

37. Mitra M, Nandi AK. Cyanocobalamin in chronic Bell’s palsy. J Indian Med Assoc 1959;33:129–31.

38. Jalaludin MA. Methylcobalamin treatment of Bell’s palsy. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 1995;17:539–44.

39. Kobayashi H, Aoyagi M, Suzuki H, et al. The clinical effects of mecobalamin on peripheral facial palsy. Otolaryngology 1980;26:968–72.

40. Yagi N, Ishikawa Y, Fukazawa T. The effect of steroid and CH3 vitamin B12 on peripheral facial paralysis. Otologia Fukuoaka 1981;74:1613.

41. Hallert C, Astrom J, Walan A. Reversal of psychopathology in adult celiac disease with the aid of pyridoxine (vitamin B6). Scand J Gastroenterol 1983;18:299–304.

42. Hallert C, Svensson M, Tholstrup J, Hultberg B. Clinical trial: B vitamins improve health in patients with coeliac disease living on a gluten-free diet. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009;29:811–6.

43. Kaufman W. The use of vitamin therapy to reverse certain concomitants of aging. J Am Geriatr Soc 1955;3:927–36.

44. Ellis FR, Nasser S. A pilot study of vitamin B12 in the treatment of tiredness. Br J Nutr 1973;30:277–83.

45. Lawhorne L, Rindgahl D. Cyanocobalamin injections for patients without documented deficiency. JAMA 1989;261:1920–3.

46. Gaby AR. Literature Review & Commentary. Townsend Letter for Doctors & Patients 1997;Feb/Mar:27 [review].

47. Lapp CW, Cheney PR. The rationale for using high-dose cobalamin (vitamin B12). CFIDS Chronicle Physicians’ Forum 1993;Fall:19–20.

48. Gumurdulu Y, Serin E, Ozer B, et al. The impact of B12 treatment on gastric emptying time in patients with Helicobacter pylori infection. J Clin Gastroenterol 2003;37:230–3.

49. Schwieger G, Karl H, Schonhaber E. Relapse prevention of painful vertebral syndromes in follow-up treatment with a combination of vitamins B1, B6, and B12. Ann NY Acad Sci 1990;585:54–62.

50. Kuhlwein A, Meyer HJ, Koehler CO. Reduced diclofenac administration by B vitamins: results of a randomized double-blind study with reduced daily doses of diclofenac (75 mg diclofenac versus 75 mg diclofenac plus B vitamins) in acute lumbar vertebral syndromes. Klin Wochenschr 1990;68:107–15 [in German].

51. Bruggemann G, Koehler CO, Koch EM. Results of a double-blind study of diclofenac + vitamin B1, B6, B12 versus diclofenac in patients with acute pain of the lumbar vertebrae. A multicenter study. Klin Wochenschr 1990;68:116–20 [in German].

52. Vetter G, Bruggemann G, Lettko M, et al. Shortening diclofenac therapy by B vitamins. Results of a randomized double-blind study, diclofenac 50 mg versus diclofenac 50 mg plus B vitamins, in painful spinal diseases with degenerative changes. Z Rheumatol 1988;47:351–62 [in German].

53. Christen WG, Glynn RJ, Chew EY, et al. Folic acid, pyridoxine, and cyanocobalamin combination treatment and age-related macular degeneration in women: the Women's Antioxidant and Folic Acid Cardiovascular Study. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:335–41.

54. Sandler B, Faragher B. Treatment of oligospermia with vitamin B12. Infertility 1984;7:133–8.

55. Kumamoto Y, Maruta H, Ishigami J, et al. Clinical efficacy of mecobalamin in treatment of oligozoospermia. Acta Urol Jpn 1988;34:1109–32.

56. Isoyama R, Baba Y, Harada H, et al. Clinical experience of methyl-cobalamin (CH3-B12)/clomiphene citrate combined treatment in male infertility. Hinyokika Kiyo 1986;32:1177–83 [in Japanese].

57. van der Kuy PHM, Merkus FWHM, Lohman JJHM, ter Berg JWM, Hooymans PM. Hydroxocobalamin, a nitric oxide scavenger, in the prophylaxis of migraine: an open, pilot study. Cephalalgia 2002;22:513–9.

58. Gaby AR. Preventing and Reversing Osteoporosis. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing, 1994, 88–9 [review].

59. Sato Y, Honda Y, Iwamoto J, et al. Effect of folate and mecobalamin on hip fractures in patients with stroke: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;293:1082–8.

60. Sawka AM, Ray JG, Yi Q, et al. Randomized clinical trial of homocysteine level lowering therapy and fractures. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:2136–9.

61. Herran A, Garcia-Unzueta MT, Amado JA, et al. Folate levels in psychiatric outpatients. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999;53:531–3.

62. Carney MW, Sheffield BF. Associations of subnormal serum folate and vitamin B12 values and effects of replacement therapy. J Nerv Ment Dis 1970;150:404–12.

63. Procter A. Enhancement of recovery from psychiatric illness by methylfolate. Br J Psychiatry 1991;159:271–2.

64. Freeman JM, Finkelstein JD, Mudd SH. Folate-responsive homocystinuria and “schizophrenia.” A defect in methylation due to deficient 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase activity. N Engl J Med 1975;292:491–6.

65. Folate-responsive homocystinuria and “schizophrenia.”Nutr Rev 1982;40:242–5.

66. Folate-responsive homocystinuria and “schizophrenia.”Nutr Rev 1982;40:242–5.

67. Levine J, Stahl Z, Sela BA, et al. Homocysteine-reducing strategies improve symptoms in chronic schizophrenic patients with hyperhomocysteinemia. Biol Psychiatry 2006;60:265–9.

68. Osifo BO, Adeyokunnu A, Parmentier Y, et al. Abnormalities of serum transcobalamins in sickle cell disease (HbSS) in Black Africa. Scand J Haematol 1983;30:135–40.

69. al-Momen AK. Diminished vitamin B12 levels in patients with severe sickle cell disease. J Intern Med 1995;237:551–5.

70. al-Momen AK. Diminished vitamin B12 levels in patients with severe sickle cell disease. J Intern Med 1995;237:551–5.

71. van der Dijs FP, Schnog JJ, Brouwer DA, et al. Elevated homocysteine levels indicate suboptimal folate status in pediatric sickle cell patients. Am J Hematol 1998;59:192–8.

72. Houston PE, Rana S, Sekhasaria S, et al. Homocysteine in sickle cell disease: relationship to stroke. Am J Med 1997;103:192–6.

73. Alpert MA. Homocysteine, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis. South Med J 1999;92:858–65 [review].

74. Houston PE, Rana S, Sekhasaria S, et al. Homocysteine in sickle cell disease: relationship to stroke. Am J Med 1997;103:192–6.

75. al-Momen AK. Diminished vitamin B12 levels in patients with severe sickle cell disease. J Intern Med 1995;237:551–5.

76. Lin YK. Folic acid deficiency in sickle cell anemia. Scand J Haematol 1975;14:71–9.

77. Natta CL, Reynolds RD. Apparent vitamin B6 deficiency in sickle cell anemia. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:235–9.

78. Alpert MA. Homocysteine, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis. South Med J 1999;92:858–65 [review].

79. van der Dijs FP, Schnog JJ, Brouwer DA, et al. Elevated homocysteine levels indicate suboptimal folate status in pediatric sickle cell patients. Am J Hematol 1998;59:192–8.

80. Rabb LM, Grandison Y, Mason K, et al. A trial of folate supplementation in children with homozygous sickle cell disease. Br J Haematol 1983;54:589–94.

81. Waterbury L. Anemia. In Barker LR, Burton JR, Zieve PD. Principles of ambulatory medicine, 4th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1995, 605.

82. Palmieri L, Ronca F, Malengo S, Bertelli A. Protection of beta-thalassaemic erythrocytes from oxidative stress by propionyl carnitine. Int J Tissue React 1994;16:121–9.

83. Yesilipek MA, Hazar V, Yegin O. L-Carnitine treatment in beta thalassemia major. Acta Haematol 1998;100:162–3.

84. Saraya AK, Kumar R, Kailash S, Sehgal AK. Vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiency in b-heterozygous thalassemia. Indian J Med Res 1984;79:783–8.

85. Silprasert A, Laokuldilok T, Kulapongs P. Zinc deficiency in b-thalassemic children. In Fucharoen S, Rowley PT, Paul NW, eds. Thalassemia: pathophysiology and management, part A. New York: Alan R Liss, 1988 [review].

86. Bashir NA. Serum zinc and copper levels in sickle cell anaemia and beta-thalassaemia in North Jordan. Ann Trop Paediatr 1995;15:291–3.

87. Arcasoy A, Cavdar AO, Cin S, et al. Effects of zinc supplementation on linear growth in beta thalassemia. Am J Hematol 1987;24:127–36.

88. Akar N, Berberoglu M, Arcasoy A. Effects of zinc supplementation on somatomedin-C level, in beta-thalassemia. Am J Hematol 1992;41:142–3 [letter].

89. Cohen L, Bitterman H, Froom P, Aghai E. Decreased bone magnesium in beta thalassemia with spinal osteoporosis. Magnesium 1986;5:43–6.

90. Hyman CB, Ortega JA, Costin G, Takahashi M. The clinical significance of magnesium depletion in thalassemia. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1980;344:436–43.

91. Arcasoy A, Cavdar AO. Changes of trace minerals (serum iron, zinc, copper and magnesium) in thalassemia. Acta Haematol 1975;53:341–6.

92. De Franceschi L, Cappellini MD, Graziadei G, et al. The effect of dietary magnesium supplementation on the cellular abnormalities of erythrocytes in patients with beta thalassemia intermedia. Haematologica 1998;83:118–25.

93. Yamane K, Usui T, Yamamoto T, et al. Clinical efficacy of intravenous plus oral mecobalamin in patients with peripheral neuropathy using vibration perception thresholds as an indicator of improvement. Curr Ther Res 1995;56:656–70 [review].

94. Kuwabara S, Nakazawa R, Azuma N, et al. Intravenous methylcobalamin treatment for uremic and diabetic neuropathy in chronic hemodialysis patients. Intern Med 1999;38:472–5.

95. Abbas ZG, Swai ABM. Evaluation of the efficacy of thiamine and pyridoxine in the treatment of symptomatic diabetic peripheral neuropathy. East African Med J 1997;74:804–8.

96. Stracke H, Lindemann A, Federlin K. A benfotiamine-vitamin B combination in treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1996;104:311–6.

97. Healton EB, Savage DG, Brust JC, et al. Neurologic aspects of cobalamin deficiency. Medicine (Baltimore) 1991;70:229-45.

98. Rana S, D'Amico F, Merenstein JH. Relationship of vitamin B12 deficiency with incontinence in older people. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998;46:931-2.

99. Garcia A, Smith M, Freedman M. Vitamin B12 deficiency and incontinence in older people. Can J Urol 2000;7:1077-80.

100. Endo JO, Chen S, Potter JF, et al. Vitamin B(12) deficiency and incontinence: is there an association? J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2002;57:M583-7.

101. Montes LF, Diaz ML, Lajous J, Garcia NJ. Folic acid and vitamin B12 in vitiligo: a nutritional approach. Cutis 1992;50:39–42.

102. Juhlin L, Olsson MJ. Improvement of vitiligo after oral treatment with vitamin B12 and folic acid and the importance of sun exposure. Acta Derm Venereol 1997;77:460–2.

103. Kang JH, Cook N, Manson J, Buring JE, Albert CM, Grodstein F. A trial of B vitamins and cognitive function among women at high risk of cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:1602-10.)

104. Clarke R, Smith D, Jobst KA, et al. Folate, vitamin B12, and serum total homocysteine levels in confirmed Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1998;55:1449–55.

105. Snowdon DA, Tully CL, Smith CD, et al. Serum folate and the severity of atrophy of the neocortex in Alzheimer disease: findings from the Nun study. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:993–8.

106. Joosten E, Lesaffre E, Riezler R, et al. Is metabolic evidence for vitamin B-12 and folate deficiency more frequent in elderly patients with Alzheimer’s disease? J Gastroenterol 1997;52A:M76–M79.

107. Ebly EM, Schaefer JP, Campbell NR, Hogan DB. Folate status, vascular disease and cognition in elderly Canadians. Age Ageing 1998;27:485–91.

108. Anibarro B, Caballero T, Garcia-Ara C, et al. Asthma with sulfite intolerance in children: A blocking study with cyanocobalamin. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;90:103–9.

109. Johnson JL, Wuebbens MM, Mandell R, Shih VE. Molybdenum cofactor deficiency in a patient previously characterized as deficient in sulfite oxidase. Biochem Med Metabol Biol 1988;40:86–93.

110. Sardesai VM. Molybdenum: an essential trace element. Nutr Clin Pract 1993;8:277–81.

111. Moss M. Effects of molybdenum on pain and general health: a pilot study. J Nutr Environ Med 1995;5:55–61.

112. Stampfer MJ, Malinow R, Willett WC, et al. A prospective study of plasma homocyst(e)ine and risk of myocardial infarction in US physicians. JAMA 1992;268:877–81.

113. Bostom AG, Silbershatz H, Rosenberg IH, et al. Nonfasting plasma total homocysteine levels and all-cause and cardiobascular disease mortality in elderly Framingham men and women. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1077–80.

114. Folsom AR, Nieto FJ, McGovern PG, et al. Prospective study of coronary heart disease incidence in relation to fasting total homocysteine, related genetic polymorphisms, and B vitamins. Circulation 1998;98:204–10.

115. Kuller LH, Evans RW. Homocysteine, vitamins, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 1998;98:196–9 [editorial/review].

116. Stolzen berg-Solomon RZ, Miller ER III, Maguire MG, et al. Association of dietary protein intake and coffee consumption with serum homocysteine concentrations in an older population. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:467–75.

117. Selhub J, Jacques PF, Wilson PW, et al. Vitamin status and intake as primary determinants of homocysteinemia in an elderly population. JAMA 1993;270:2693–8.

118. Ubbink JB, Hayward WJ, van der Merwe A, et al. Vitamin requirements for the treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in humans. J Nutr 1994;124:1927–33.

119. Manson JB, Miller JW. The effects of vitamin B12, B6, and folate on blood homocysteine levels. Ann NY Acad Sci 1992;669:197–204 [review].

120. Folsom AR, Nieto FJ, McGovern PG, et al. Prospective study of coronary heart disease incidence in relation to fasting total homocysteine, related genetic polymorphisms, and B vitamins. Circulation 1998;98:204–10.

121. Hackam DG, Peterson JC, Spence JD. What level of plasma homocyst(e)ine should be treated? Am J Hypertens 2000;13:105–10.

122. Till U, Rohl P, Jentsch A, et al. Decrease of carotid intima-media thickness in patients at risk to cerebral ischemia after supplementation with folic acid, vitamins B6 and B12. Atherosclerosis 2005;181:131–5.

123. Franken DG, Boers GHJ, Blom HJ, et al. Treatment of mild hyperhomocysteinemia in vascular disease patients. Arterioscler Thromb 1994;14:465–70.

124. Ubbink JB, Vermaak WJH, van der Merwe A, et al. Vitamin requirements for the treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in humans. J Nutr 1994;124:1927–33.

125. Ubbink JB, van der Merwe A, Vermaak WJH, Delport R. Hyperhomocysteinemia and the response to vitamin supplementation. Clin Investig 1993;71:993–8.

126. Botiglieri T. Folate, vitamin B12, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Nutr Rev 1996;54:382–90 [review].

127. Fine EJ, Soria ED. Myths about vitamin B12 deficiency. Southern Med J 1991;84:1475–81.

128. Hasanah CI, Khan UA, Musalmah M, Razali SM. Reduced red-cell folate in mania. J Affect Disord 1997;46:95–9.

129. McKeon P, Shelley R, O’Regan S, O’Broin J. Serum and red cell folate and affective morbidity in lithium prophylaxis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1991;83:199–201.

130. Lee S, Chow CC, Shek CC, et al. Folate concentration in Chinese psychiatric outpatients on long-term lithium treatment. J Affect Disord 1992;24:265–70.

131. Stern SL, Brandt JT, Hurley RS, et al. Serum and red cell folate concentrations in outpatients receiving lithium carbonate. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1988;3:49–52.

132. Coppen A, Abou-Saleh MT. Plasma folate and affective morbidity during long-term lithium therapy. Br J Psychiatry 1982;141:87–9.

133. Lee S, Chow CC, Shek CC, et al. Folate concentration in Chinese psychiatric outpatients on long-term lithium treatment. J Affect Disord 1992;24:265–70.

134. Stern SL, Brandt JT, Hurley RS, et al. Serum and red cell folate concentrations in outpatients receiving lithium carbonate. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1988;3:49–52.

135. Coppen A, Chaudhry S, Swade C. Folic acid enhances lithium prophylaxis. J Affect Disord 1986;10:9–13.

136. Goggans FC. A case of mania secondary to vitamin B12 deficiency. Am J Psychiatry 1984;141:300–1.

137. Verbanck PM, LeBon O. Changing psychiatric symptoms in a patient with vitamin B12 deficiency. J Clin Psychiatry 1991;52:182–3 [letter].

138. Klemes IS. Vitamin B12 in acute subdeltoid bursitis. Indust Med Surg 1957;26:290–2.

139. Kellman M. Bursitis: a new chemotherapeutic approach. J Am Osteopathic Assoc 1962;61:896–903.

140. Porter SR, Scully C, Flint S. Hematologic status in recurrent aphthous stomatitis compared to other oral disease. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1988;66:41–4.

141. Palopoli J, Waxman J. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis and vitamin B12 deficiency. South Med J 1990;83:475–7.

142. Wray D, Ferguson MM, Hutcheon WA, Dagg JH. Nutritional deficiencies in recurrent aphthae. J Oral Pathol 1978;7:418–23.

143. Barnadas MA, Remacha A, Condomines J, de Moragas JM. [Hematologic deficiencies in patients with recurrent oral aphthae]. Med Clin (Barc) 1997;109:85–7 [in Spanish].

144. Olson JA, Feinberg I, Silverman S, et al. Serum vitamin B12, folate, and iron levels in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1982;54:517–20.

145. Weusten BL, van de Wiel A. Aphthous ulcers and vitamin B12 deficiency. Neth J Med 1998;53:172–5.

146. Porter S, Flint S, Scully C, Keith O. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: the efficacy of replacement therapy in patients with underlying hematinic deficiencies. Ann Dent 1992;51:14–6.

147. Wray D, Ferguson MM, Mason DK, et al. Recurrent aphthae: treatment with vitamin B12, folic acid, and iron. Br Med J 1975;2(5969):490–3.

148. Volkov I, Rudoy I, Freud T, et al. Effectiveness of vitamin B12 in treating recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.J Am Board Fam Med 2009;22:9–16.

149. Nolan A, McIntosh WB, Allam BF, Lamey PJ. Recurrent aphthous ulceration: vitamin B1, B2 and B6 status and response to replacement therapy. J Oral Pathol Med 1991;20:389–91.

150. Haisraeli-Shalish M, Livneh A, Katz J, et al. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis and thiamine deficiency. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1996;82:634–6.

151. Imes S, Plinchbeck BR, Dinwoodie A, et al. Iron, folate, vitamin B-12, zinc, and copper status in out-patients with Crohn’s disease: effect of diet counseling. J Am Dietet Assoc 1987;87:928–30.

152. Sandstead HH. Zinc deficiency in Crohn’s disease. Nutr Rev 1982;40:109–12.

153. Driscoll RH Jr, Meredith SC, Sitrin M, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and bone disease in patients with Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 1982;83:1252–8.

154. Yancy KB, Lawley TJ. “Immunologically Mediated Skin Diseases.”Harrison’s Online. 1999. https://www.harrisonsonline.com/hill-bin/Chapters.cgi (Jan 10, 2000).

155. Kastrup W, Mobacken H, Stockbrugger R, et al. Malabsorption of vitamin B12 in dermatitis herpetiformis and its association with pernicious anaemia. Acta Med Scand 1986;220:261–8.

156. Gawkrodger DJ, Ferguson A, Barnetson RS. Nutritional status in patients with dermatitis herpetiformis. Am J Clin Nutr 1988;48:355–60.

157. Hoffbrand AV, Douglas AP, Fry L, Stewart JS. Malabsorption of dietary folate (Pteroylpolyglutamates) in adult coeliac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis. Br Med J 1970;4:85–9.

158. Davies MG, Marks R, Nuki G. Dermatitis herpetiformis—a skin manifestation of a generalized disturbance in immunity. Q J Med 1978;47:221–48.

159. Kastrup W, Mobacken H, Stockbrugger R, et al. Malabsorption of vitamin B12 in dermatitis herpetiformis and its association with pernicious anaemia. Acta Med Scand 1986;220:261–8.

160. Crofton RW, Glover SC, Ewen SW, et al. Zinc absorption in celiac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis: a test of small intestinal function. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;38:706–12.

161. Gawkrodger DJ, Ferguson A, Barnetson RS. Nutritional status in patients with dermatitis herpetiformis. Am J Clin Nutr 1988;48:355–60.

162. Hoffbrand AV, Douglas AP, Fry L, Stewart JS. Malabsorption of dietary folate (Pteroylpolyglutamates) in adult coeliac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis. Br Med J 1970;4:85–9.

163. Di Stefano M, Jorizzo RA, Veneto G, et al. Bone mass and metabolism in dermatitis herpetiformis. Dig Dis Sci 1999;44:2139–43.

164. Roizen NJ, Amarose AP. Hematologic abnormalities in children with Down syndrome. Am J Med Genet 1993;46:510–2.

165. David O, Fiorucci GC, Tosi MT, et al. Hematological studies in children with Down syndrome. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1996;13:271–5.

166. Ibarra B, Rivas F, Medina C, et al. Hematological and biochemical studies in children with Down syndrome. Ann Genet 1990;33:84–7.

167. Hestnes A, Stovner LJ, Husoy O, et al. Hormonal and biochemical disturbances in Down’s syndrome. J Ment Defic Res 1991;35:179–93.

168. Israelsson B, Brattstrom LE, Hultberg BL. Homocysteine and myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 1988;71:227–33.

169. Ridker PM, Manson JE, Buring JE, et al. Homocysteine and risk of cardiovascular disease among postmenopausal women. JAMA 1999;281:1817–21.

170. Bots ML, Launer LJ, Lindemans J, et al. Homocysteine and short-term risk of myocardial infarction and stroke in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:38–44.

171. Stampfer MJ, Malinow MR, Willett WC, et al. A prospective study of plasma homocysteine and risk of myocardial infarction in US physicians. JAMA 1992;268:877–81.

172. Folsom AR, Nieto FJ, McGovern PG, et al. Prospective study of coronary heart disease incidence in relation to fasting total homocysteine, related genetic polymorphisms, and B vitamins: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation 1998;98:204–10.

173. Kuller LH, Evans RW. Homocysteine, vitamins, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 1998;98:196–9 [editorial/review].

174. Nallamothu BK, Fendrick AM, Rubenfire M, et al. Potential clinical and economic effects of homocyst(e)ine lowering. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:3406–12.

175. Landgren F, Israelsson B, Lindgren A, et al. Plasma homocysteine in acute myocardial infarction: homocysteine-lowering effect of folic acid. J Intern Med 1995;237:381–8.

176. Ward M, McNulty H, McPartlin J, et al. Plasma homocysteine, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, is lowered by physiological doses of folic acid. QJM 1997;90:519–24.

177. Lobo A, Naso A, Arheart K, et al. Reduction of homocysteine levels in coronary artery disease by low-dose folic acid combined with vitamins B6 and B12. Am J Cardiol 1999;83:821–5.

178. Voutilainen S, Lakka TA, Porkkala-Sarataho E, et al. Low serum folate concentrations are associated with an excess incidence of acute coronary events: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:424–8.

179. Campbell RE, Pruitt FW. Vitamin B12 in the treatment of viral hepatitis. Am J Med Sci 1952;224:252–62.

180. Campbell RE, Pruitt FW. The effect of vitamin B12 and folic acid in the treatment of viral hepatitis. Am J Med Sci 1955;229:8–15.

181. Kanter AS, Spencer DC, Steinberg MH, et al. Supplemental vitamin B and progression to AIDS and death in black South African patients infected with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999;21:252–3 [letter].

182. Butterworth RF, Gaudreau C, Vincelette J, et al. Thiamine deficiency in AIDS. Lancet 1991;338:1086.

183. Baum MK, Mantero-Atienza E, Shor-Posner G, et al. Association of vitamin B6 status with parameters of immune function in early HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991;4:1122–32.

184. Tang AM, Graham NMH, Saah AJ. Effects of micronutrient intake on survival in human immunodeficiency type 1 infection. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:1244–56.

185. Boudes P, Zittoun J, Sobel A. Folate, vitamin B12, and HIV infection. Lancet 1990;335:1401–2.

186. Simon SW. Vitamin B12 therapy in allergy and chronic dermatoses. J Allergy 1951;22:183–5.

187. Simon SW, Edmonds P. Cyanocobalamin (B12): comparison of aqueous and repository preparations in urticaria; possible mode of action. J Am Geriatr Soc 1964;12:79–85.

188. Meyer de Schmid JJ, Zeller J. Urticaria due to vitamin B 12 allergy verified by the lymphoblastic transformation test. Bull Soc Fr Dermatol Syphiligr 1969;76:670–1 [in French].

189. Tamura J, Kubota K, Murakami H, et al. Immunomodulation by vitamin B12: augmentation of CD8+ T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cell activity in vitamin B12-deficient patients by methyl-B12 treatment. Clin Exp Immunol 1999;116:28–32.

190. Okawa M, Mishima K, Nanami T, et al. Vitamin B12 treatment for sleep-wake rhythm disorders. Sleep 1990;13:15–23.

191. Ohta T, Ando K, Hayakawa T, et al. Treatment of persistent sleep-wake schedule disorders in adolescents and vitamin B12. Jpn J Psychiatr Neurol 1991;45:167–8.

192. Heimburger DC, Alexander B, Birch R, et al. Improvement in bronchial squamous metaplasia in smokers treated with folate and vitamin B12. Report of a preliminary randomized, double-blind intervention trial. JAMA 1988;259:1525–30.

193. Heimburger DC, Alexander B, Birch R, et al. Improvement in bronchial squamous metaplasia in smokers treated with folate and vitamin B12. Report of a preliminary randomized, double-blind intervention trial. JAMA 1988;259:1525–30.

194. Hanck A, Weiser H. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of vitamins. Int J Vitam Nutr Res Suppl 1985;27:189–206.

195. Hieber H. Treatment of vertebragenous pain and sensitivity disorders using high doses of hydroxocobalamin. Med Monatsschr 1974;28:545–8 [in German].

196. Agostoni C, Marangoni F, Riva E, et al. Plasma arachidonic acid and serum thromboxane B2 concentrations in phenylketonuric children negatively correlate with dietary compliance. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1997;56:219–22.

197. Giovannini M, Agostoni C, Biasucci G, et al. Fatty acid metabolism in phenylketonuria. Eur J Pediatr 1996;155 Suppl 1:S132–5.

198. Poge AP, Baumann K, Muller E, et al. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte membrane lipids of children with phenylketonuria after controlled linoleic acid intake. J Inherit Metab Dis 1998;21:373–81.

199. Jochum F, Terwolbeck K, Meinhold H, et al. Effects of a low selenium state in patients with phenylketonuria. Acta Paediatr 1997;86:775–7.

200. Kauf E, Seidel J, Winnefeld K, et al. Selenium in phenylketonuria patients. Effects of sodium selenite administration. Med Klin 1997;92 Suppl 3:31–4 [in German].

201. Sierra C, Vilaseca MA, Moyano D, et al. Antioxidant status in hyperphenylalaninemia. Clin Chim Acta 1998;276:1–9.

202. Gropper SS, Naglak MC, Nardella M, et al. Nutrient intakes of adolescents with phenylketonuria and infants and children with maple syrup urine disease on semisynthetic diets. J Am Coll Nutr 1993;12:108–14.

203. Hanley WB, Feigenbaum AS, Clarke JT, et al. Vitamin B12 deficiency in adolescents and young adults with phenylketonuria. Eur J Pediatr 1996;155 Suppl 1:S145–7.

204. Schulpis KH, Platokouki H, Papakonstantinou ED, et al. Haemostatic variables in phenylketonuric children under dietary treatment. J Inherit Metab Dis 1996;19:603–9.

205. Hanley WB, Feigenbaum AS, Clarke JT, et al. Vitamin B12 deficiency in adolescents and young adults with phenylketonuria. Eur J Pediatr 1996;155 Suppl 1:S145–7.

206. Vinogradov VV, Tarasov IuA, Tishin VS, et al. Thiamin prevention of the corticosteroid reaction after surgery. Probl Endokrinol 1981;27:11–6 [in Russian].

207. Lettko M, Meuer S. Vitamin B-induced prevention of stress-related immunosuppression. Ann NY Acad Sci 1990;585:513–5.

208. Kornerup T, Strom L. Vitamin B12 and retinopathy in juvenile diabetics. Acta Paediatr 1958:47:646–51.

209. Ko SM, Liu TC. Psychiatric syndromes in pernicious anaemia—a case report. Singapore Med J 1992;33:92–4.

210. Ko SM, Liu TC. Psychiatric syndromes in pernicious anaemia—a case report. Singapore Med J 1992;33:92–4.

211. Majumdar SK, Kakad PP. Serum vitamin B12 status in chronic schizophrenic patients. J Hum Nutr 1981;35:3 [letter].

212. Schiller F. Herpes zoster: review, with preliminary report on new method for treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1954;2:726–35.

213. Heyblon R. Vitamin B12 in herpes zoster. JAMA 1951;146:1338 (abstract).

214. Lalouschek W, Aull S, Serles W, et al. Genetic and nongenetic factors influencing plasma homocysteine levels in patients with ischemic cerebrovascular disease and in healthy control subjects. J Lab Clin Med 1999;133:575–82.

215. Ridker PM, Manson JE, Buring JE, et al. Homocysteine and risk of cardiovascular disease among postmenopausal women. JAMA 1999;281:1817–21.

216. Perry IJ. Homocysteine, hypertension and stroke. J Hum Hypertens 1999;13:289–93 [review].

217. Genest J Jr. Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia—determining factors and treatment. Can J Cardiol 1999;15:35B–38B [review].

218. Ubbink JB, Hayward WJ, van der Merwe A, et al. Vitamin requirements for the treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in humans. J Nutr 1994;124:1927–33.

219. Manson JB, Miller JW. The effects of vitamin B12, B6, and folate on blood homocysteine levels. Ann NY Acad Sci 1992;669:197–204 [review].

220. Wang X, Qin X, Demirtas H, et al. Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in stroke prevention: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2007;369:1876–82.

221. Shemesh Z, Attias J, Ornan M, et al. Vitamin B12 deficiency in patients with chronic tinnitus and noise-induced hearing loss. Am J Otolaryngol 1993;14:94–9.

222. Goldberg TH. Oral vitamin B12 supplementation for elderly patients with B12 deficiency. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995;43:SA73 [abstr #P258].

223. Lederle FA. Oral cobalamin for pernicious anemia—medicine’s best kept secret? JAMA 1991;265:94–5 [commentary].

224. Kondo H. Haematological effects of oral cobalamin preparations on patients with megaloblastic anemia. Acta Haematol 1998;99:200–5.

225. Waif SO, Jansen CJ, Crabtree RE, et al. Oral vitamin B12 without intrinsic factor in the treatment of pernicious anemia. Ann Intern Med 1963;58:810–7.

226. Crosby WH. Oral cyanocobalamin without intrinsic factor for pernicious anemia. Arch Intern Med 1980;140:1582.

227. Kaufman W. The use of vitamin therapy to reverse certain concomitants of aging. J Am Geriatr Soc 1955;3:927–36.

228. Lindenbaum J, Rosenberg IH, Wilson PWF, et al. Prevalence of cobalamin deficiency in the Framingham elderly population. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60:2–11.

229. Verhaeverbeke I, Mets T, Mulkens K, Vandewoulde M. Normalization of low vitamin B12 serum levels in older people by oral treatment. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997;45:124–5 [letter].

230. Eussen SJ, de Groot LC, Clarke R, et al. Oral cyanocobalamin supplementation in older people with vitamin B12 deficiency: a dose-finding trial. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1167–72.

231. Delpre G, Stark P, Niv Y. Sublingual therapy for cobalamin deficiency as an alternative to oral and parenteral cobalamin supplementation. Lancet 1999;354:740–1. [letter]

232. Rauma AL, Torronsen R, Hanninen O, Mykkanen H. Vitamin B12 status of long term adherents of a strict uncooked vegan diet (“living food diet”) is compromised. J Nutr 1995;125:2511–5.

233. Takenaka S, Sugiyama S, Ebara S, et al. Feeding dried purple laver (nori) to vitamin B12-deficient rats significantly improves vitamin B12 status. Br J Nutr 2001;85:699–703.

234. Snow CF. Laboratory diagnosis of vitamin B12 and folate deficiency. A guide for the primary care physician. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1289–98 [review].

235. Rana S, D’Amico F, Merenstein JH. Relationship of vitamin B12 deficiency with incontinence in older people. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998;46:931 [letter].

236. Houston DK, Johnson MA, Nozza RJ, et al. Age-related hearing loss, vitamin B-12, and folate in elderly women. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:564–71.

237. Kaptan K, Beyan C, Ural AU, et al. Helicobacter pylori—is it a novel causative agent in Vitamin B12 deficiency? Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1349–53.

238. Perez-Perez GI. Role of Helicobacter pylori infection in the development of pernicious anemia. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:1020–2 [review].

239. Fong TL, Dooley CP, Dehesa M, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection in pernicious anemia: a prospective controlled study. Gastroenterology 1991;100:328–32.

240. Shemesh Z, Attias J, Ornan M, et al. Vitamin B12 deficiency in patients with chronic-tinnitus and noise-induced hearing loss. Am J Otolaryngol 1993;14:94–9.

241. Remacha AF, Cadafalch J. Cobalamin deficiency in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Semin Hematol 1999;36:75–87.

242. Lindenbaum J, Healton EB, Savage DG, et al. Neuropsychiatric disorders caused by cobalamin deficiency in the absence of anemia or macrocytosis. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1720–8.

243. Penninx BW, Guralnik JM, Ferrucci L, et al. Vitamin B(12) deficiency and depression in physically disabled older women: epidemiologic evidence from the Women’s Health and Aging Study. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:715–21.

244. Wu K, Helzlsouer KJ, Comstock GW, et al. A prospective study on folate, B12, and pyridoxal 5’-phosphate (B6) and breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1999;8:209–17.

245. Kanazawa S, Herbert V. Total corrinoid, cobalamin (vitamin B12), and cobalamin analogue levels may be normal in serum despite cobalamin in liver depletion in patients with alcoholism. Lab Invest 1985;53:108–10.

246. Cravo ML, Camilo ME. Hyperhomocysteinemia in chronic alcoholism: relations to folic acid and vitamins B(6) and B(12) status. Nutrition 2000;16:296–302 [review].

247. Pardo J, Peled Y, Bar J, et al. Evaluation of low serum vitamin B(12) in the non-anaemic pregnant patient. Hum Reprod 2000;15:224–6.

248. Sauer SW, Keim ME. Hydroxocobalamin: improved public health readiness for cyanide disasters. Ann Emerg Med 2001;37:635–41.

249. Snowden JA, Chan-Lam D, Thomas SE, Ng JP. Oral or parenteral therapy for vitamin B12 deficiency. Lancet 1999;353:411 [letter].

250. Hovding G. Anaphylactic reaction after injection of vitamin B12. Br Med J 1968;3:102.

251. Moloney FJ, Hughes R, O'Shea D, Kirby B. Type I immediate hypersensitivity reaction to cyanocobalamin but not hydroxycobalamin. Clin Exp Dermatol 2008;33:412–4.

252. House AA, Eliasziw M, Cattran DC, et al. Effect of B-vitamin therapy on progression of diabetic nephropathy. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010;303:1603–9.

Vitamin B12 Benefits

Here is what people are saying about the benefits of Vitamin B12.

Natrol Vitamin B12 ~~$12.99~~ $8.72		"Very good quality. I will order another one for my daughter and me. ..."
Read Reviews >

Natrol Vitamin B12 ~~$12.99~~ $8.72		"Vitamin B-12 of Natrol is a perfect product for vegan people. The taste is good. The price is really attractive and the dosage is very convenient: you only have to take a tab once every 2 weeks. I'm very satisfied of my purchase and I thank eVitamins for their very helpfull Customer Service. They help me very much as my parcel had been lost by the ..."
Read Reviews >

Doctor's Best Quick Melt Fully Active B12 ~~$9.99~~ $7.82		"Fantastico prezzo...."
Read Reviews >

Deva Vegan Vitamin B12 Sublingual ~~$9.99~~ $7.64		"I have been taking these for several years. I had my doctor check my B12 levels a few months back, and I actually had HIGH levels of B12! (Not dangerously high or anything, but he was a bit surprised at how high they were.) Also, I've been told by a nutritionist that B12 needs to be sublingual or liquid in order to absorb properly, so these su..."
Read Reviews >

Everyone Loves FREE Shipping!

Vitamin B12 Benefits, Dosage and Safety

Related Topics

Learn all about Vitamin B12

What is Vitamin B12

How to Use It

Where to Find It

Possible Deficiencies

Side Effects

Vitamin B12 has been used in connection with the following health conditions:

Anemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Depression and Vitamin B12 Deficiency

High Homocysteine

Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Age-Related Cognitive Decline and Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Bell’s Palsy

Celiac Disease

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Indigestion and Vitamin B12 Deficiency, Delayed Gastric Emptying, and Helicobacter Pylori Infection

Low Back Pain

Macular Degeneration

Male Infertility

Migraine Headache

Osteoporosis and High Homocysteine

Schizophrenia and High Homocysteine

Sickle Cell Anemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Thalassemia and Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Neuropathy

Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Neuropathy

Urinary Incontinence

Vitiligo

Age-Related Cognitive Decline

Alzheimer’s Disease

Asthma

Atherosclerosis

Bipolar Disorder

Bursitis

Canker Sores

Crohn’s Disease

Dermatitis Herpetiformis and Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Down’s Syndrome

Heart Attack

Hepatitis

HIV and AIDS Support

Hives

Immune Function

Insomnia

Lung Cancer

Pain

Phenylketonuria and Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Pre- and Post-Surgery Health

Retinopathy

Schizophrenia

Shingles and Postherpetic Neuralgia

Stroke and High Homocysteine

Tinnitus

Type 1 Diabetes